Say for example I have a ball, I want the sphere collider to be a certain radius when it comes into contact with one material (material A in diagram) and a different size when it comes into contact with another material (material C in diagram). How would I go about doing this? (Diagram attached)
Since this is the 2D forum, I assume that you mean a circle collider, rather than a sphere (although the same idea would work with the 3D physics).
You can do something along these lines:
Create two physics layers, let’s say: MaterialA and MaterialB.
Set the rectangle to layer MaterialA and the gray circle to MaterialB.
The black circle need a circle collider. Then you need to add an empty child object to the that object. In the empty child you add another circle collider, making it smaller than the parent’s collider.
Now set the black circle’s layer to MaterialA and the empty child’s layer to MaterialB.
Go to the Physics2D settings (which is found at Edit/Project Settings/Physics 2D). There you will find a matrix that controls which layers interacts with each other. Uncheck so that MaterialA doesn’t collide with MaterialB and vice versa.
Now you should have a setup that more or less does what you asked for…