iOS Build Fails without Errors or Warnings

Our project, which builds fine in the Editor, fails it’s Unity Cloud build (Clean Build), without any errors or warnings.

The only things which stick out in the logs are:

Which seems weird, because I double-checked that DLLs in question were in source control.
But what seems to really fail the build is:

Here’s the full log for reference (I removed the thousands of check-outed lines.

Are you building with the same version of Unity locally as you are in cloud build? I don’t see anything obvious in the log - typically that “Receiving unhandled NULL exception” error is an internal Unity crash.

I am using the latest stable version of Unity (5.3.2f1) on both my computer and Cloud Build.